Television and Cultural Change

Television and Cultural Change Research Paper: 1. Introduction Once considered a complete luxury for a family to own, the television has become a stable fixture in British and American households over the past few decades. In recent years, it has become unusual for a family not to own a television set and now it is just as uncommon for a family to own just one. In Britain, the years spanning from 1955 to 1969 saw an increase from 40 percent to 93 per cent of the population owning a television set (Silverstone, 1994, p. 67).Television or â€Å"TV† has become a prominent source for news and entertainment for billions of people around the world. For this, among other reasons, the concept of TV and its content has been the subject of much academic discourse and controversy. A lot of this discourse focuses on the ways television affects changes in societies’ behaviour and culture. This is visible via various scholarly communities. For example, up until 1982, psychologists ha d conducted over 2000 studies regarding the imitation of violence in the mass media.Economists and market researchers have performed similar types of empirical studies regarding imitation and suggestion in advertising (Bollen and Phillips, 1982, p. 802). This paper will combine findings of similar studies in an aim to examine the way television both mediates and contributes to cultural shifts in societies, particularly in Britain and the United States of America. 2. The Interplay of Institutions, Markets and Audiences Television drama, news, factual programming and the transformation of public service broadcasting have all played a huge role in the development of British and American society and cultural change.These changes currently present themselves through communications held between institutions, markets, and audiences. For instance, the consideration of an audience as a market instead of as the public by all types of institutions is the source for much controversy and debate (Walter, 2000, p. 67). This point will be further touched upon when discussing pubic service broadcasting and market-led broadcasting but first we must grasp a general understanding of cultural response to television as media. 3. Positive and Negative Response in SocietyThe communications that develop can be positive, in the case of an increase in democratic involvement or participation in the community but it can be also be negative, in the case of controversial programming, which can arguably contribute to the loss of a child’s innocence and even impair one’s ability to develop critical thinking skills. According to Bernard Berelson, a prominent American behavioural scientist, those with the greatest mass media exposure are much more likely to know a candidate’s stance on various issues (McCombs and Shaw, 1972, p. 77). On the contrary, Kenneth Bollen and David Phillips reported a prime example of how news can lead to a negative change in a society. A study tha t was performed and then replicated for a different time period showed that suicides had increased immediately following (10 days proceeding) a news report of a suicide in the surrounding region (1982). In order to ensure that changes are beneficial and that they contribute to the greater good of people, in this case in Britain and the U. S.A, studies such as this one must be produced and analysed. The study should offer insights, convey patterns, and report facts that can be applied in a practical way. As in the aforementioned case, it is evident that those who produce media have a responsibility for what they produce, whether it is fiction or fact. If watching a news report can incite someone to act on something as extreme as the contemplation of suicide, it may very well do the same for matters of a different nature 4. Public Service Broadcasting and the Free MarketWhen television was invented, it altered all preceding media of news and entertainment as well as many of our instit utions and forms of social relationships (Williams and Williams, 1992). In the public service broadcasting system, the consensus was that television media should be used for the good of the public and that access is guaranteed for all citizens (Walter, 2000, p. 67). Instead, private profit and gain enforced by market-led broadcasting, has compromised the idea of equality in terms of ability to receive information.This dissipation of equality stems from the differences in the general understanding of the roles that broadcasting plays (Walter, 2000, p63). The role that public service broadcasting plays is relevant today even with the new communication technologies of cable and satellite as the former provides quality programming which aims to raise cultural standards and provide a forum for democratic discussion and debate while the latter provides choice merely through exclusion, predicated by the ability of the consumer to pay for the additional services provided (Walter, 2000, p. 4 ). The Protocol to the Amsterdam Treaty dated June 1997 on public service broadcasting states â€Å"the system of public service broadcasting†¦is directly related to the democratic, social and cultural needs of each society†¦ to preserve media pluralism†, and it is in itself the reason why PSB is still relevant today, even for those states who did not sign on this treaty. 5. Understanding and Critiquing News Programming If one should ever listen in on a families’ after dinner conversation, one could often hear a parent commanding his or her offspring to â€Å"Turn that junk off! or questioning them as to â€Å"Why don’t you watch something educational instead? † and other comments of similar nature. The non-junk and educational content they are often referring to is factual programming such as the news. However, even with something as objective as the news there are still a few elements that one should consider when determining its quality and contribution to the viewing audience, as the point of contact between the people, events and politics. The objectivity of a news report should always be considered, just as the bias in a study or an experiment is considered in scientific communities.Many networks, even those provided through PSB, often have agendas and side with a political group. Furthermore, news stations are often pressured to deliver information that will grasp the attention of the viewer foremost, with the achievement of a quality report being a secondary goal. Considering factors such as the frequency and threshold of reported events can help in one’s appraisal. To exemplify the former, one can reflect on a news program dealing with the economic status of the country.If it focuses on temporary events that will not re-occur and do not help draw a picture of the economy as a whole, it is not a quality report. As for threshold, for instance, after the murder of John Lennon, events, which would normally not be considered newsworthy, received more coverage than they should have due to the public’s demand for therapy (Hartley, 1992, p. 76). A rule of thumb for news reporters is that bad news is good news (Hartley, 1992, pg. 76). However, as mentioned in a previous section of this report, empirical evidence shows that this is definitely not he case for the audience, considering the outcome suicide reports have on the subjected audiences behavioral changes. 6. Conclusions 6. 1. The Effects of Television on Society Television has many supporters and critics alike. Some argue that it brings people closer and some maintain that it can cause a divide in a community or even in a family. The way that one comes to these conclusions is by drawing questions such as the following. Do those who are not entitled to as much information due to economic reasons going to feel excluded and unworthy?Does media, such as television, contribute to a decrease of peoples’ participation in politics , the social environment and traditional leisure programs? Does locally produced programming strengthen the local community? These questions, among many others , should be answered in a proper analysis of television’s effect on people. Because those who are raised within a society develop and contribute that society’s culture more, it is vital to pay attention to its younger population. 6. 2. The Effects of Television on Young PeopleYoung people, in particular, have very malleable minds and are greatly affected by the things they see on television. In Sonia Silverstone’s Young People and the New Media, this phenomenon is thoroughly examined (1994). In this article, Silverstone reports of a British team of researchers who posed these types of questions in the form of survey questionnaire and interviews. The subjects ranged in age, gender and social and educational backgrounds in hopes of correlating media usage and effect across different segments of population.F indings showed that although television is considered an adequate source of information, it is also used to fill in the boring gaps of a child’s life. Television has the ability to shape a child’s emotions and it has effects on family life (Silverstone, 1994, p. 64, p. 68). 6. 3. The Effects of Television on the Domestic Space A crucial position in which TV has affected society can be viewed from within the domestic space. The television set has visibly transformed domestic arrangements over the years.In prior times, only the wealthy homes had a set in the family room. In more recent years, television has overtaken individual space as well, allowing for less family communication, a pattern which is now repeating itself with personal computers. Domestic time was also affected as television-viewing time has gradually increased over the years, once again allowing for less family time and communication. An outstanding statistic shows that at one point, Europe’s high est television viewing times belonged to the British population aged 9-16 (Silverstone, 1994, p. 69).In the same year, every age group from 10-16 years old reportedly preferred to watch TV alone as opposed to with friends, siblings, parents or anyone else (Livingstone, 1994). 6. 4. Representation of Reality Our perceptions of reality have been transformed by contemporary celebrity culture via television. The role played by television is that of reinforcement for both the state (which, today can be any figure appearing on a network) and the citizen (the audience). The validation that is provided serves as a means of centralised opinions and styles of behaviour (Williams and Williams, 1992).This is why anxieties about ‘dumbing down’ are in fact legitimate. Let us take an actor who believes that which is not presented in his character on his daytime drama. The audience who views this actor/ actress may adopt to a notion, feeling or belief portrayed by the character, in tur n validating the actor/ actress himself of a new belief system, one that he/ she had not previously considered. Should this belief system be one, deemed by professional opinions and the general public, of bad taste, it would mean that this is not quality television, and it does not produce a good quality of change for the general public as a culture.

Maximising profits and meeting objectives Essay

J D Wetherspoon owns pubs right across the UK. It is now the UK’s fastest growing company. They serve good quality food at knockdown prices. They also clear your plates away quickly afterwards and ask if the food was to your satisfaction. Wetherspoon’s employs approximately 11,200 staff who work either part or full-time. The company believe that there is a direct link between the high performance of their staff and their approach to staff recruitment, training, development, and motivation. Each pub operates with skilled management, who are fully supported by bar and kitchen staff. Their mission statement is ‘to have by far the best CBSM (cleanliness, beer, service, maintenance) standards in the pub world; to be the best company to work for; and, by doing these things to be the most profitable.’ McDonald’s McDonald’s have over 1000 restaurants across the United Kingdom. Three quarters of these are run by managers on behalf of the company and the other quarter being run as franchises. McDonald’s is the world’s largest franchising company, with seven out ten outlets being a franchise, and being owned and run by independent entrepreneurs. McDonald’s sell burgers and chicken with a variety of different desserts and hot and cold drinks, served by friendly and helpful team members. One of McDonald’s stated aims is ‘to provide a friendly service in a relaxed, safe, and consistent restaurant environment.’ J D Wetherspoon J D Wetherspoon uses Maslow’s hierarchy of needs as the bases of their motivation techniques. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs gives the managers clear and useful insights into how best they should motivate their staff. J D Wetherspoon aims to provide each individual employee with the skills and knowledge, which will help them to gradually climb the ladder of hierarchy permanently. Maslow’s pyramid can help Wetherspoon’s with this. They believe in creating a work force, which is committed and motivated. This workforce should be made up of people who can achieve personal fulfilment via the freedom that they get through their work. Realising that they will not be able to keep all their employees for all of their working life, J D Wetherspoon wants them to grow a sense of loyalty to the company They promote their staff through the different levels of employment status in the business, from bar/kitchen associates, to pub managers, to general managers to help motivate them. They pay each of the employees more than their competitors are paying their staff, so that the all associates (employees) feel motivated and will stay with the company for as long as possible. They believe that once their employees know that they are being paid more than the minimum wage for their work, they will become more motivated. The company bases its pay on reviews of performance of each of the staff; the better the performance the better the pay. The company also provides a bonus scheme for its workers. Each member of staff receives a bonus depending upon the performance of the pub in which they work. To get each member of staff to work to their full potential, the business runs many incentive schemes. One example of this is a monthly draw for examples of excellent customer care. The winner will receive an all expenses paid holiday for two in New York. Along with this, the business offers a share option scheme to each of its employees, enabling them to buy shares in the company at an assured price. The company do this in the belief that it will make the staff have a sense of belonging in company and will want to see the company succeed. McDonald’s McDonald’s method of motivation involves using rewards, goals, and promotion prospects for their members of staff. Although the company motivates their staff via reward methods, goals and promotion prospects, they use F.W. Taylor’s Scientific Management motivation theory. McDonald’s splits their staff into teams, so that there is a team of people in each of the areas of the restaurant. There are also team members who walk round the restaurant and clear tables of empty food boxes and drinks cartons. Julie Room, a General Manager from a McDonald’s restaurant says that McDonald’s are continually hiring new members of staff, as their staff members ‘are always leaving.’ McDonald’s have high promotion prospects for their staff, with all the managers who work for the company once being crewmembers, and 80% of the top managers were once crewmembers. The president of McDonald’s Ltd, also worked as a crewmember in a restaurant. This gives the current members of staff aspirations for the future. To help each member of staff, the company trains them in the restaurant that they will work in. Each staff member is trained in all 16 areas of the business including grill, buns, dressings, filets, and pies, drive-thru, front counter, and back room. This is all on the job training. This means that the staff can experience job rotation within their work. This leads to job motivation for the staff. Therefore, the team members are more likely to stay with the company for longer. This is very similar to the motivation theory of Douglas McGregor. J D Wetherspoon J D Wetherspoon’s management is of a democratic style. The management encourages the staff to take part in decision-making through the multi-channel communication system, which the company has in place. Wetherspoon’s believe that many of the projects that they adopt stem from the ideas put forward by their ‘associates’. This is because they are on the ‘front-line’ of the company. They can see where things need to be improved and changed. These things tend to obvious to the people who are in contact with customers on a day-to-day basis but are not quite so obvious to the managers, higher up in the business who are very rarely seen by the customers. The changes and improvements that the associates would like to see are communicated to their line manager, who refers them to the pub/restaurant manager. Within a few weeks, the ‘good ideas’ are put into practice to make to the pub/restaurant appear better to the public and possibly to attract more customers. Every fortnight, they hold a ‘big meeting’ where over 100 employees attend. This includes people like the company chairperson, company directors, and pub managers and some associates from many pubs/restaurants. Here, all the employees can voice their opinions on the company’s over all performance and the ways in which they think it can be improved. Everyone who attends, gets to vote whether a certain route for a promotion of an offer the company is participating in, gets the go ahead or not. Many of the people who work for Wetherspoon’s carry a high level of commitment and many are proud to work for Wetherspoon’s. The company strongly believes that one of the key factors, which differentiates the company from its rivals, is the high quality of customer service/care that is achieved, from employing a number of committed employees. McDonald’s McDonald’s management style is more autocratic. This is because the members of staff are told which part of the restaurant they will be working in and they are told what they have to do. However, some of the approaches that McDonald’s use can be seen in McGregor’s Theory Y. This is people centred and the managers are more democratic. The managers give the teams responsibility for each of the sections, awarding them appropriately, as they meet and exceed targets. They also believe that their staff want to work and are not lazy. However, the members of staff at McDonald’s can also come under McGregor’s Theory X. This is because the teams have to be controlled and monitored. They have to be told what to do and are often watched to make sure that they are performing correctly. They are often seen to ‘slack’ and to be lazy. Thus, they need some motivation to inspire them to work. It is only the managers that get a say in what the company does. The employees, which are seen everyday, unlike the managers, do not get any input into company and the decisions it makes what so ever. Therefore, the team members feel undervalued. This can then result in the management team lacking in motivation to motivate their staff. J D Wetherspoon Wetherspoon’s business culture is one orientated around their associates at the lower levels. This is because these people see the areas that can improved. The managers rely on these people to report any problems and successes. Wetherspoon’s encourages their staff to challenge existing ideas and practices to continually improve the company. The changes that are raised are adjusted little by little rather than in one big change. Many of these changes are suggested by the employees, who base them upon their experience whilst at work. However, these sorts of things can only occur in an open culture. Nothing is disclosed within Wetherspoon’s approach and is based upon the understanding and the belief in some of the key ideas of human motivation. Their approach to the way things are done resembles Charles Handy’s Role Culture. This is because of the structure that the company takes; this is much like a pyramid with the chairperson at the top and the associates at the bottom, very rarely speaking to one another (see below). McDonald’s McDonald’s business culture is orientated around the tasks that the staff have to carry out. This is because without these people the company could not function efficiently. These people also see the day-to-day running of the business, the taking of the money, serving of the food etc. The approach that the company takes resembles Charles Handy’s Task Culture. This is because of the company structure. The Task Culture is represented by a matrix, which looks like a grid (see right). The company splits its employees into project teams. Within these teams, they have to solve problems, which may arise. In addition, everyone can cross boundaries within the business. This means that they can work in other departments as well as the one they are employed in e.g. some one working on the front counter, could work in the kitchens. This culture also uses individual talents in each area i.e. people on the front counter need to use people skills, need to have good communication skills and confidence, whereas on the other hand, the people who cook the burgers need to be good at time keeping, cooking the burgers, and keeping up with the demands. J D Wetherspoon The company is committed to providing the highest standards of training and development to all employees. They aim to encourage, motivate, and support all the employees to achieve the company’s mission statement and to fulfil the personal ambitions. There are different programmes, which the company use to train and develop. Generally, when people start working for the business they start as bar/kitchen associates. They start with the training for this job, as they progress in the business, they receive development training. This is for team leaders, shift managers, kitchen managers and pub managers. Each of the positions have their own set of training programmes. For example, for someone to train as a shift manager, they have to go through twelve types of training; induction, food hygiene, health and safety, kitchen training, customer management, personnel policies and procedures, people skills, interview skills, and stock management. They also have to do a National Licensee’s Certificate. Whereas to train as a bar/kitchen associate, they have to do food hygiene, health and safety, and kitchen training. J D Wetherspoon’s develop their staff. They do this because the staff that already work for the company know the way the business works. Also, training staff that already work for Wetherspoon’s, to higher positions in the company can mean that the costs of recruiting and training new staff will be reduced. It also helps to ensure staff loyalty and can reduce many future uncertainties in the company. This can then, in addition ensure that the company will not run out of skilled people; i.e. a bar/kitchen associate who has been promoted to a shift manager can always help out in the kitchen because they would have had the correct training to be able to work in the kitchens. Therefore, they have the skills and the company has not lost them. Training existing staff can help gain a competitive advantage. This means the company can gain more customers and more customer loyalty. In theory, and in many cases, in reality, this can help to motivate the managers, which in turn will help them to train their staff better, and can motivate them too. The company’s training and development programme is a combination of on and off the job training courses. The company’s training centres round career development. McDonald’s McDonald’s hire their staff on a three weeks probationary period. The company have the right to end employment of at any time during these three weeks. It is only after these three weeks, and if their performance has been acceptable, that the member of staff becomes part of the team. It is said that the company takes six months to train a full-timer and 11 months to train a part-timer. This is because of the sixteen areas in which everyone has to be trained on. These include the grill, buns, dressings, filets, and pies, drive-thru, front counter, and back room. They also have a buddy system. This is where a new employee to the company is paired with someone else who has been with the company for a while and have experience. This person will be one of the training squad and will look after the new team member for their probationary period. Eventually the trainer will decide whether or not the new team member is capable of carrying out the work in the area. When this has been decided the staff member would have received a gold star (this system existed in 1999, it no longer exists). The company thought that the teams found this system of rewarding good work, motivational. McDonald’s, like J D Wetherspoon’s like to develop their staff. In the article by Susan Curtis, it says that â€Å"there is a set hierarchy of jobs for crew members to work their way up: (1) Crew member (2) Five – star crew member (3) Training squad member (4) Hourly-paid floor manager (5) Salaried floor manager (second assistant manager) (6) First assistant manager (7) Store manager (8) General manager (only in larger stores).’ They develop their staff for the same reasons that J D Wetherspoon’s do. They do it to save money and to give staff more opportunities within the business. J D Wetherspoon J D Wetherspoon’s encourage their staff to work in teams. This is because team working means that there is a more efficient and effective production team. It is also believed that working as a team, can satisfy the social needs of people. Many managers delegate power among the people who work underneath them. This is in the belief that delegation meets the employees’ ego and self-actualisation needs from the motivation theory of Maslow. In addition, working as part of a team means that people can job rotate, to give them a bit of variety. This means that they can be more motivated towards their job, knowing that there is a possibility of job rotation within their teams, even if it is cooking a different part of a meal. Wetherspoon’s encourages this because they want their staff to achieve as much as possible in their work. They also want their members of staff to have a sense of belongingness to the company. Wetherspoon’s recognise that the feeling of belongingness is an employee need and therefore they set out to meet it. McDonald’s McDonald’s also encourage their staff to work in teams. This is because they, like J D Wetherspoon’s, have a more efficient and effective work force this way. McDonald’s staff are encouraged to work as teams so that all the work is covered and completed, whether it is morning at breakfast, mid-day at lunchtime or in the evening at ‘tea’ time. This also helps to satisfy the staff at McDonald’s and helps to maximise the involvement of the staff. The teams are usually functional. Also within the teams, the staff can swap jobs with someone else and change department that they work in. Team working means that the staff can become multi-skilled. This makes it easier to do someone else’s job. They can also meet shared objectives, i.e. serve each customer within a minute. J D Wetherspoon J D Wetherspoon’s is a pub/restaurant. They sell both drinks and food. This means that they need enough stock to supply their customers. The company have to ensure that each of their pubs has enough beer barrels in their cellar and enough wines and spirits to last them at least a week. The company will have at least a delivery of beer every few days or so as the beer will go off very quickly once the barrel has been opened. The company always has just enough stock to cater for all their customers, whether they be eating or drinking. They bring many different types of beers to their customers throughout the year via beer festivals. Wetherspoon’s work along side Cask Marque (a quality standard for real beer) and CAMRA (Campaign for Real Ale). This means that the company brings in new beers and rotates them throughout the year to offer their customers some variety. They also offer many spirits and wines as well. All these alcoholic beverages are kept in stock with strict quality standards, upheld inside the pub. This is to make sure that the customers can enjoy their drinks. This applies to the beers especially. The company offer fifty plus different meals per day, they therefore need to make sure that they have enough ingredients for these meals. They need to make sure that the stock they have does not go out of date to quickly either. They have many meals on their menu, which contain meat (beef, pork, chicken, and lamb) and fish. To keep this from going off they need to put the meats and fish in a chiller. They have to order enough of each ingredient for each of the meals on their menu, as if they are to sell many of the same meal. They do this for both the beverages and food so that they never run out of stock. If they were to run out of stock then there is a possibility of losing customers and future customers. The method of stock control that they use, in my opinion is ‘Just in Case’. This is because they can never be sure how much of each meal option they need to make and they never know how much of a particular beer or spirit they are going to sell, so they need enough stock just in case some one buys a meal or a drink. McDonald’s McDonald’s, on the other hand, operates in a different way. They stock up on all their burgers, salads, deserts, and fries although they use J.I.T. The restaurants are always very busy during the day. Therefore the company gets through many burgers, and fries each day. They have to rely upon their suppliers to deliver in time for ‘rush hours’ i.e. lunch time as they know they will need more stock. They estimate their level of sales for each item on the menu using previous figures, doing this they can predict how much they need to order. To use J.I.T. McDonald’s need to know exactly what they need. They need pretty good knowledge of their customers requirements. They also need to have excellent relationships with their suppliers, and need to have accurate understandings of production requirements. J D Wetherspoon J D Wetherspoon have to assure quality in both food and the drink. They ensure this by buying the highest quality ingredients for their meals from their suppliers. To guarantee this, they make sure that they build strong relationships with the suppliers. They also have a ‘food guru’, who works closely with the food team. Once a month he reviews the company’s menu and the ingredients which they use, and he gives his personal ‘seal of approval’ if he believes they are at the highest standard that people would expect from J D Wetherspoon’s. To ensure that the beer they sell is to the highest standards, they employ beer tasters. These people test the beers on four areas; appearance, aroma, taste and aftertaste. These are usually marked out of 10, so each beer can get a maximum of 40 marks. All of the beers which the company supply must meet their tasting standards, before any orders can be placed. Whilst in stock, there are strict quality standards in place which are maintained within the free house, to ensure that customers enjoy the beer at its best. This process also applies to the wines and spirits. As with the beers, the wines and spirits have to meet the company’s high standards. The wines and spirits are also tested for appearance, aroma, taste and aftertaste and again if they don’t meet Wetherspoon’s standards then they are not sold in any of the pubs/restaurants. They also train their staff to a high standard of work to ensure the quality of customer service. They do this by training their staff in customer management and in people skills. McDonald’s Serving more than 2.5 million customers each day makes quality a consistent goal. They work with leading suppliers across the UK – from potato farmers in Lincolnshire and Norfolk to dairies in the South and Midlands – to bring customers the tasty products that customers expect from McDonald’s. McDonald’s attempt to certify quality from crop to counter. Therefore they require the highest standards and specifications, not just for product ingredients; every detail of production, transport, delivery, preparation and service is carefully monitored. A focus on quality pervades every aspect of the business. Their standards top the food industry, and they continue to work with government and health officials to investigate improvements to their foods. Both companies have their different approaches to maximising profits and to meet its objectives. The way in which each company goes about it is effective to them. Both companies are, although in the same area of trade, are completely different. They operate in different ways, have different kinds of people working for them and generally have different clientele. The people who work for McDonald’s are generally those who can work in the conditions that are found in a McDonald’s restaurant. They tend to be able to deal with pressure a little easier then those working at Wetherspoon’s and vice versa. These people have a different kind of objective to aim towards, that is appropriate to the different companies. Again the approach each company uses helps to achieve these very well and can sometimes help them to exceed them. The companies approaches, however, both lead to them maximising their profits. This is because of the efficiency and effectiveness of the staff in both companies.

Analysing the economic relationship between households and firms

Analysing the economic relationship between households and firms The household is the basic unit of analysis in many social, microeconomic and government models. The term refers to all individuals who live in the same dwelling. In economics, a household is a person or a group of people living in the same residence. Household are owners of the factors of production which is includes land, labor, capital and entrepreneurship. Which are made available to firm that will pay factor incomes to the households. The firm will use the factors of production to produce output in the form of goods and services, which will purchase by the households. In buying the goods and services, households therefore incur expenditures. 2.0 Circular Flow between Firm and Households The circular flows between firms and household may therefore be represented by the following 4 flows: Flow of factor of production from household to firms Flow of incomes from firm to household Flow of output of goods and services from firm to households Flow of expenditures from household to fi rm These four flows are illustrated as appendix 1. Outer flow of incomes and expenditures are flow of money, whereas the inner flows of factors of production and outputs are flows of goods and services. According to Google 2011 the basic circular flow of income model consists of seven assumptions it include the economy consists of two households and firms sectors, households spend all of their income on goods and services or consumption. There is no saving and all output produced by firms is purchased by households through their expenditure, there is no financial, government, overseas sector. Last it is a closed economy with no exports or imports. Withdrawals occur when there are movements of funds out of the circular flow of income. 3.1 Saving (S) Households may not speed all the factors income received on current consumption, preferring to keep some for later deferred consumption. The first is the Financial Sector that consists of banks and non-bank intermediaries who engage in th e borrowing (savings from households) and lending of money. In terms of the circular flow of income model the withdrawals that financial institutions provide in the economy is the option for households to save their money. This is a withdrawal because the saved money cannot be spent in the economy and thus is an idle asset that means not all output will be purchased. 3.2 Taxation (T) The next sector introduced into the circular flow of income is the Government Sector that consists of the economic activities of local, state and federal governments. The withdrawal that the Government sector provides is through the collection of revenue through Taxes (T) that is provided by households and firms to the government. A tax is not a voluntary payment or donation, but an enforced contribution, exacted pursuant to legislative authority and is any contribution imposed by government. For example income tax is compulsory charge by the government to the people who is salary RM3000 and above for a month. 3.3 Import (M) Households may prefer to purchase goods and services from abroad instead of consuming domestically produced goods and services. In the circular flow of income model is the overseas sector which transforms the model from a closed economy to an open economy. The main withdrawal from this sector are imports (M), which represent spending by residents into the rest of the world. There are two basic types of import which is include industrial and consumer good, intermediate goods and service. For example we will import the apple for other country which is not suitable plant in our country.

Holistic Medcine Research Proposal Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Holistic Medcine - Research Proposal Example While searching about the topic about my dissertation, naturally, the problem of childhood obesity kept popping up. This area in particular has been documented to be a health problem of epidemic proportions, with the incidence and prevalence both being on the rise. Moreover, all biomedical interventions despite being research based have failed to produce results in practice. The main problem detected is that of failure to instigate lifestyle behavior in terms of dietary energy intake and physical activity in the target population. What I felt was children spend most of their time in families, and thus the family macro environment shapes their behavior in other areas. What if an intervention designed on the principles of holistic clinical medicine implemented in families could be implemented, which would promote behavioral change This proposition seemed very interesting since, there is a need for a solution to the problem of childhood obesity due mainly to the facts that behaviors inc urred in childhood continue into adulthood, reduce health effects of obesity in the adulthood, may answer the unanswered questions in this area of practice, may fulfill the gaps in knowledge in this area where there is a great paucity of research making this topic unique, and may provide a guideline for management both to the holistic medicine and biomedical medicine. Moreover, this is an opportunity for me to be involved I research in my area of practice, where my learning on research methods may be implemented so I am able to investigate whether my personal belief that clinical holistic medicine at family levels may alter the current course of childhood obesity since the solution of this problem may lie in targeting pediatric population in order to modify these lifestyle behaviors that predispose to childhood obesity and its adverse effects. Why do you feel you can provide additional information on this topic From my studies, it is clear that inherent health risk behaviors in terms of dietary energy consumption and lack of physical activity in a regular fashion are the main reasons of childhood obesity, where sustained problem behaviors at the family levels potentiate the problem that are inadequately addressed by clinical biomedical interventions. Research studies in biomedical models in this topic are inadequate mainly due to knowledge gaps of the researchers on holistic health care principles. On the other hand, research on holistic healthcare is inadequate due mainly to paucity of knowledge in the principles of biomedical medicine and methodological deficiencies in research design. From my position as a holistic practitioner, I can utilize my knowledge of research methods and holistic health principles within the domain of biomedical knowledge of childhood obesity to have a research designed in this area which can successfully bridge the gap. In my opinion this original and unique top ic is nothing more than under researched where many gaps exist

International oil and gas law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

International oil and gas law - Essay Example This will start by explaining the types of agreement that the government can enter into when the current term with an oil development company called Noble Oil expires and the reasons why such type of agreement could be suitable. Also, following oil discovery in Amazia, the paper will discuss how the Urbania should go about oil development in that region as well as give an advice on which company the government should work with. Finally, the paper will discuss the various types and sources of finance that are available for Urbania, considering that the country does not have adequate resources to fund oil development projects. A. What type of agreement should Urbania enter into for continued development of, and production from, the Western Plateau region, when the current concession expires? Be sure to give reasons for your recommendation. There are several fundamental agreements that can be made between the government of Urbania and Nobel Oil Company including the Joint Venture Agreem ent, concession, service contract and production sharing agreement.1 The government can decide to continue with the current concession agreement if it wants to guarantee the ownership of the oil resources of the company that will be granted the license. Technically, this ownership is enjoyed in exchange for royalty, which is usually estimated at a fixed rate on the quantity of oil produced. In some situations, the company can also enjoy tax exceptions and reduced custom duties in exchange for the extraction rights. This agreement will present Nobel Oil with a long duration of agreement with the government of Urbania, and it will be difficult for the government to include a ‘lock in’ clause such that it will be hard for any party to pull out for whichever reason. Nevertheless, this type of agreement comes with some disadvantages. For instance, a concession is a long-term agreement, which is usually faced with problems related to adjustment of financial commitments as a r esult of unexpected circumstances. 2 It will also be a disadvantage on the side of the licensed company because it will be required to pay higher amount of pre-oil discovery fee, and following the discovery of oil, the company is likely to pay very high amounts of royalties as well as income tax. The current rate of royalty is 16%, which will somewhat generate a substantial amount of revenue and hence a good reason for the government to retain concession when the current one expires. The concession contains relinquishment clauses, which could compel the Oil Company to either to discover commercial reserves; or following the discovery of commercial reserves within a certain period of time, relinquish usable portions of the concession back to Urbania government. The concession has an express work obligation of a limited period of time within which the Oil Company is expected to commence oil exploration and on discovery of commercial reserves, the company would be expected to develop o il in accordance with good oilfield practice. This means that the government will have some powers to control the activities of the oil company in a manner that ensures the company is following oil industry practices. The joint venture agreement is another option that Urbania government can put into considerations after the current

Introduction to European Studies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Introduction to European Studies - Essay Example (Mukherjee, 22) But it should be remembered that the idea of Europe, as we know it today, was still in its infancy dealing in ideologies and fundamentals that are not much different from the rest of the known and civilized world. As late as the beginning of the 1700 AD there were still the practice of feudalism in one form or another, there were states that used bonded labours and encouraged slavery, woman rights were not known and structural academic movements were still at bay. This society needed a thrust to start off. And that thrust was inspired from a political movement in England. The Act of Union was passed in British Council whereby four states, England, Ireland, Scotland and Welsh came together to form a political union know as United Kingdom of Great Britain. Subsequent Act of Union was passed in 1707 and 1800 and this was the point of a growing concept which ultimately is on its way towards a unified European Union in the 21st Century. The perception of a common fiscal policy has been granted by most of the states of Europe and Union of European could be within striking distance. However, this modern concept of unification of states is a step towards a better and mutually prosperous situation but at the same time it should be kept in mind the development of Europe as a concept or idea started with other variables too. (Mukherjee, 81) The concept of Europe as a unified cultural sect started along the path of the 1700s and the basic idea of Europe is that unified perception of thought process bounded by cultural, social, religious and political homogeneousness. There are other variables to develop this homogeneousness of states in Europe whereby the idea could be put forward. Religion One such variable is the growth of Christianity as a binding force. It is obvious that religion played an enormous part as the determining factor of conceptualising the unified idea of Europe. The Eight Crusades were just a beginning of this bonding. Though Christianity has changed face along with time and space and at present there are three major distributaries of the religion viz. Roman Catholic, Protestant and Greek Orthodox it cannot be denied that Christ as a Prophet, despite being Semitic by anthropological diversity, it should be noted and the fact that should indulged in this conception, influenced all the tribes of Europe be it Nordic, Alpine or Caucasian. Although, no one can ignore that during the inquisition period this religion did enough to set back the clock for Europe, at least scientifically. But this same inquisition period can be put forward to ensure the bondage that that spread across Europe with the substantial feel of brotherhood. Political Apart from the Act of Union in Great Britain there came another exemplary act that forced all Europe to reconsider their usual concept of life and perception of politics all at the same time all over Europe. This was the French revolution of the late 18th Century. On 20 September 1792 the National Convention abolished the monarchy and declared France a republic. Due to the emergency of war the National Convention created the Committee of Public Safety, controlled by the Jacobin Robespierre, to act as the country's executive. Under

Discussion Forum Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Discussion Forum - Essay Example The advantages of working in a decentralized structure are that the system empowers employees. Having autonomy over your own decisions gives the person a feeling or sense of importance (Greiner, 1998). Also, working in a decentralized structure relieves the burden of decision making from one person to everybody else in the organization. Working in a centralized structure, on the other hand, allows fast execution of ideas. This is because decision making is left to one party, the overall head of the organization (Greiner, 1998). The difference in authority, responsibility and accountability between decentralized and centralized structures is that, in the latter, the names have individual significance instead of the decentralized structure where the phrases are more universal. By saying universal, this paper argues that authority, responsibility, and accountability are shared in decentralized structures (Greiner, 1998). Pain management documentation (PMD), comprising of assessment, interventions or intercessions, as well as reassessment, can assist provide a significant way of communication among health practitioners in order to individualize healthcare. Ordinary health institutions apply pain management documentation (PMD) as a vital pointer of quality (Samuels & Kritter, 2011). Implementation of the electronic medical record changes the presentation of PMD data for quality, as well as clinical evaluation use. Pain management documentation is frequently an objective evaluation of care given and can replicate clinical decisions. Documentation offers a key data source for knowledge creation and offers evidence required for practice liability. A majority of standard-setting institutions need PMD as a vital indicator of quality. By doing this, as earlier stated, practitioners will be able to individualize care, as well as communicate information necessary for stability (Samuels &

Has the quality of global news improved over the past 20 years Essay

Has the quality of global news improved over the past 20 years - Essay Example The use of televisions had continued to increase but most of the under-developed countries still relied more on radios and newspapers. Still, journalism and mass communication is not as widespread as it is in developed countries. Like many other fields relating to different aspects of our lives, technology has deeply influenced journalism and mass communication. The processes of producing news and delivery of information have become much quicker. News can reach everywhere with much more accuracy. The quality of radio, television and newspapers has improved greatly. The impact of technology has helped journalism to become a more professional field. The news reporters and editors have now to perform at a certain standard. In the early 90s, the performance standards had developed but still a lot of editors and reporters were more inclined to join hands in propaganda to spread a particular point of view or a political party. The USSR had fallen by then but biggest examples of such news r eporting can be found in the cold war during which many reporters had the objective of asserting one ideology and renounce another i.e. capitalism and communism. Such mindset made the editors and reporters refrain from telling the whole story. As the Internet has now joined the news industry, it is very hard to hide or avoid a piece of news. It is because the Internet is probably the quickest of all means of promulgating news and anyone can report any news to the world now. Previously, there used to be a competition among journalists only due to which only the journalists got most of the stories or â€Å"scoops†. The journalists had the liberty to spread only that portion of the news that they wanted to spread. Journalism and mass communication used to be a closed society to which only those belonged who had the funds to own a printing press or were closely related in some other capacity to one who belonged to that society. Mostly during the last 10 years, the Internet has be come very widespread and the cost of reporting news is at the minimum level. Now even the minorities can join the field of journalism as it has become an open society. The general public has access to electronic devices which are portable and can take pictures and videos. These pictures and videos can be posted on the Internet at almost no cost. Therefore, for professional journalists, omission of news has become out of the question. The recent US presidential campaigns used mass internet campaigning which curtailed the influence of the journalists manifold. Journalists have often been used as mediums to convey a political message to the public. Mass internet campaigning seeks to cut out this medium and make the conveying of message more direct and at a lesser cost. This trend has been set by Obama and is followed and likely to be followed by other political parties all over the world. It can be said that the introduction of the Internet has made everyone a journalist. Through blogs , forums and many other veritable devices, anyone can have their voices heard. In recent times, a Facebook fueled uprising led to a huge change in Egypt. It started out with one voice that ignited the inner voices of many others. Egypt was under a dictatorial rule for a long time and probably the biggest reason for that was the ability to the Government to silence the dissenting opinions and make the public hear only what it wanted it to hear. The Internet made it

CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS - Assignment Example In this case the limits will offer a rational framework within which ideas and concepts can be understood. In coming up with such limitations academicians in various fields such as lexicographers, lawyers, system analysts and philosophers analyses concepts to draw up distinctions and give meaning to abstract objects and words in a bid to ensure that a common ground for interpretation is reached. In doing this, they define constraints, consistency checks and implications that must be enforced to keep the database an accurate reflection of the state of the world the result of which is a formalizable catalog of concepts, relations facts and principles that makes up the world , how its put together and how it works. (Sowa, 1984). In this regard, concepts can be defined as a general idea derived from particular instances that is, the concept is described within the confines of the context and situation in which it is devised.The sub concept is a secondary concept that is derived from the already formulated concepts. The derivation of concepts and subconcepts then demand that ideas and information be interpreted differently depending on the situations at hand and this calls for frameworks within which unifying concepts can be defined. Without such frameworks there would be a misuse of conceptualization where individuals would disagree on even obvious matters. An accused in the court of law would claim that he believes that killing is good and justifiable, people would not agree on such basic things as the colour of the traffic lights or the interpretation of basic texts. It’s for this reason that database administrators carry out conceptual analysis in designing a database to ensure that the resulting d atabase does not contain arbitrary restrictions or even inconsistent data. In doing this they eliminate the vague boundaries of natural concepts and replace them with sharp and more precise distinctions. In the end it is true to say

Integrated Service Digital Network Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 3

Integrated Service Digital Network - Assignment Example Moreover, it revolutionized the use of the internet. Much similar to its precursor, the service of dial-up internet, ISDN uses a phone line. In addition, it put the standard for the telephone data service (Dean, 2010). Â  It enables the hook up of the local cable TV line to a PC and receives data close to 1.5 Mbps. This device is addable to or can be integrated with a set-top box, which provides a TV set with Internet access channels. Commonly, they are provided as part of the service of cable access. Furthermore, they are not bought directly and set up by the subscriber (Sobh, Elleithy, & Mahmood, 2010). Â  As the Sr. System Administrator of Minnesota Consulting Group, I would recommend RFID (radio frequency identification), portable cell phones and handheld inventory scanners to Star Clothing. This is because the company can use RFID in reducing theft. Moreover, the company can also use handheld inventory scanners in the control of inventories. In addition, the portable cell phones are cost-effective ways of communications between different departments.

What is Nutrition Essay Example for Free

What is Nutrition Essay OBJECTIVES: 1. Identify and discuss factors that affect food choices. (Course objective 1) 2. Define: nutrition, nutrients, essential nutrients, non essential nutrients, kilocalorie 3. Identify the six classes of nutrients utilized by humans and describe their basic functions in the body. (Course Objective 4) 4. Describe the steps of the scientific method. 5. Describe the following components of research studies: experimental group, control group, placebo, double-blind placebo-controlled study 6. Discuss the types of research studies and methods used to acquire valid nutrition information. (Course objective 2) 7. Differentiate between reputable and non-reputable sources of nutrition information. 8. Differentiate between the various methods used to assess the nutrient status of individuals and population groups. Discuss the pros and cons TEACH YOURSELF THE BASICS: What Drives Our Food Choices? 1. Identify at least five factors that influence our food choices. Taste,enjoyment, culture, environment, social reasons, and popular trends. 2. Discuss examples of at least three of the factors identified in question 1. Taste is considered the number one factor when it comes to choosing foods. Foods that are salty and sweet are among the top choices. Culture plays an important role in choosing food. Foods that are easily available to a group of the population are more likely to be eaten over foods that are rare to the location. Someone from China may have different choices than someone from Italy. Social trends also have a role to play in choosing food. What family and friends eat and foods considered popular may be chosen over other foods, despite health concerns. **Make sure to read â€Å"The Take-Home Message† for this section (Pg. 7) What is Nutrition? 1. Explain how the focus of the study of nutrition has changed over time. Nutrition began a few hundred years ago as a science relating nutrients to diseases and its affects, but today is used as a way to promote good health and long life by healthy eating. ​** Make sure to read â€Å"The Take-Home Message† for this section (Pg. 9) What are Nutrients? 1. List the six categories of nutrients found in foods and in the body. Carbohydrates, Lipids (fats), Proteins, Vitamins, Minerals, and Water 2. Which nutrients provide energy? Carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. Alcohol also provides energy but is not considered a nutrient. 3. When we use the term â€Å"calorie† to describe the energy content of food, are we actually referring to the word â€Å"calorie† or are we referring to the word â€Å"kilocalorie†? Explain. Kilocalorie, not calorie, is the correct term when referring to the energy content of food. Calorie is a much smaller unit of measurement. 4. How many kilocalories are provided in a gram of carbohydrate? Protein? Fats? Carbohydrates and Proteins have 4 kilocalories and Lipids or fats have 9 kilocalories. **Make sure to read â€Å"The Take-Home Message† for this section (Pg. 13) What Are the Primary Roles of the Individual Nutrients? 1. For each of the 6 classes of nutrients, briefly describe their primary role in the body. Use the table below to guide you. Macronutrients include carbohydrates, proteins, fats and water. Carbohydrates are the body’s Mai’s source of energy. Proteins provide the building blocks, or amino acids, for tissue in the body. Fats are also a source of energy but in a more concentrated form. Water makes up a majority of the fluids in the body, as well as its tissues. Micronutrients include vitamins and minerals. Vitamins help regulate metabolism and use other nutrients, while minerals assist in body processes. 2. List some food sources for carbohydrates, lipids and proteins. Carbohydrates include bread, cereals and nuts. Lipids include butter and oils. Proteins include meat and dairy. 3. Classify the vitamins according to whether they are water soluble or fat soluble. Water soluble vitamins include vitamin C and the 8 B-complex vitamins. Fat soluble vitamins include A, D, E, and vitamin K. 4. Give examples of major minerals and trace minerals. Major minerals include calcium and magnesium, while Trace minerals include iron and zinc. **Make sure to read â€Å"The Take-Home Message† for this section (Pg. 16) What is Credible Nutrition Research? 1. What are some questions you can ask yourself to evaluate the credibility of published nutrition information (in print or on the internet)? Was the research findings published in a peer-reviewed journal? Was the study done on animals or humans? Is this the first time I have heard this? Do the study participants resemble me? 2. Describe the steps of the scientific method. Scientists observe the natural world, ask questions, and put forth or submit an explanation, called a hypothesis, bases on what they observed. Next they test this hypothesis to determine if it is correct or not. After testing or conducting an experiment, it can be determined if the hypothesis is supported or not by the findings. If supported, the findings can be published. If not supported, the scientist then must revise or redo the hypothesis. 3. Why is a double-blind placebo-controlled study considered the â€Å"gold standard† of research? This study is the gold standard because all variables are the same and controlled for the groups with no bias toward any group or researcher. 4. How does sample size affect the credibility of research results? The sample sizes must be large enough so that any differences in the study are related to treatment and not just chance. **Make sure to read â€Å"The Take-Home Message† for this section (Pg. 21) What Is Nutrition Assessment and What Does It Involve? 1. Briefly describe the different methods for assessing the nutrition status of individuals. Which one is the â€Å"best† method? Explain your reasoning. Anthropometric data is used to determine body size or composition. Data gathered is compared to reference standards, which can help determine risk factors for developing disease. Biochemical tests assess nutrient levels in body fluids, how fast nutrients are excreted through urine, and metabolic by products of nutrients found in urine. Clinical tests inspect the body for over or under nutrition by inspecting hair, nails and lips. Dietary intake can be measured by interviews and questionnaires to reveal lifestyle habits. The most important of the four would be anthropometric due to its ability to evaluate for disease such as diabetes. **Make sure to read â€Å"The Take-Home Message† for this section (Pg. 27) How Do We Assess the Nutritional Status of a Population Group? 1. How are nutritional assessment methods for a population group different than those which would be used for an individual? For a large population national surveys are used to determine nutritional status. How Does the American Diet Stack Up? 1. Summarize how the American diet compares to dietary recommendations. Americans eat too much protein, sugar, sodium, saturated fat and not enough fiber, some vitamins and minerals. **Make sure to read â€Å"The Take-Home Message† for this section (Pg. 30) What’s the Best Dietary Strategy for Health? 1. Is the following statement true or false: A variety of whole foods will meet everyone’s nutritional needs and there should be no need for nutritional supplements. Explain your ​answer. False. Some individuals have diet restrictions or higher nutrient needs such as a pregnant woman or someone who is lactose intolerant. **Make sure to read â€Å"The Take-Home Message† for this section (Pg. 31) VOCABULARY: Nutrition: The science that studies how nutrients and compounds in foods nourish the body and affect body functions and overall health. Nutrients: Compounds in foods that sustain body processes. There are six classes of nutrients: carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals, and water Essential Nutrients: Nutrients that must be consumed from foods because they cannot be made in the body in sufficient quantities to meet its needs and support health. Nonessential Nutrients: Nutrients that can be made in sufficient quantities in the body to meet the body’s requirements and support health. Energy Yielding Nutrients: The three nutrients that provide energy to the body to fuel physiological functions: carbohydrates, lipids, and protein. Kilocalorie: The amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kilogram of water 1 degree centigrade; used to express the measurement of energy in foods; 1 kilocalorie is equal to 1000 calories. Macronutrients: Organic nutrients, including the energy-containing carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and water that the body needs in large amounts. Micronutrient: Essential nutrients the body needs in smaller amounts: vitamins and minerals. Water Soluble Vitamins: Vitamins that dissolve in water: Generally cannot be stored in the body and must be consumed. Fat Soluble Vitamins: Vitamins that dissolve in fat and can be stored in the body. Major Minerals: Minerals needed by the body in amounts greater than 5 grams; Aka Macro minerals. Trace Minerals: Minerals needed by the body in amounts less than 5 grams; Aka Micro minerals. Peer Reviewed Journal: A journal in which scientists publish research findings, after the findings have gone through a rigorous review process by other scientists. Observational Research: Research that involves systematically observing subjects to see if there is a relationship to certain outcomes. Experimental Group: In experimental research, the group of participants are given a specific treatment, such as a drug, as part of the study. Control Group: in experimental research, the group that does not receive the treatment but may be given a placebo instead; used as a standard for comparison. Placebo: An inactive substance, such as a sugar pill, administered to a control group during an experiment. Double-Blind Placebo-Controlled Study: An experimental study in which neither the researchers nor the subjects in the study are aware who is receiving the treatment or the placebo. Nutritional Genomics: A field of study of the relationship between genes, gene expression, and nutrition. Registered Dietician: A health professional who is a food and nutrition expert; RDs obtain a college degree in nutrition from an American Dietetic Association (ADA) accredited program, and pass an exam to become a Registered Dietician. Malnourished: A condition that results when the body does not receive the right amount of essential nutrients to maintain health; over nourished and undernourished are forms of malnutrition. Malabsorption: A problem associated with the lack of absorption of nutrients through the intestinal tract. Medical Nutrition Therapy: The integration of nutrition counseling and dietary changes based on individual medical and health needs, to treat a patient’s medical condition. Quackery: The promotion and selling of health products and services of questionable validity. Body Mass Index (BMI): A measurement calculated as height divided by weight squared; used to determine whether an individual is underweight, at a healthy weight, or overweight. Overweight: For adults, having a BMI greater than 25. Obesity: For adults, having a BMI greater than 30. ​Here are a few examples of reliable nutrition and health websites. †¢ American Dietetic Association: www.eatright.org †¢ Centers for Disease Control: www.cdc.gov †¢ Food and Drug Administration: www.fda.gov †¢ National Institutes of Health: www.nih.gov †¢ U.S. Department of Agriculture: www.nutrition.gov †¢ American Cancer Society: www.cancer.org For additional resources, animations, and news stories over topics from this chapter, click on â€Å"Chapter Contents† on your Blackboard page, then click on â€Å"Chapter 1.†

Different Kinds Of Trial Under CRPC Law Essay

Different Kinds Of Trial Under CRPC Law Essay Most offences in Indian criminal law were created by Statute and have a statutory maximum penalty. For the purposes of trial, offences were divided into different categories, offences triable by indictment (warrant cases) or offences triable only summarily, or offences triable either way. The most serious offences (eg: murder, rape) are triable only on indictment, at the Sessions Court. A large mass of less serious offences are triable only summarily, in magistrates courts. The middle category of offences triable either way and comprises of most burglaries, thefts and frauds. The trial is the pivotal point of a Criminal case. Sec 190 of the CrPC talks of the conditions that need to be fulfilled before proceedings can be initiated by the Magistrate (it specifically empowers a Magistrate to take cognizance of a case). It is the exclusive power of the Magistrate under Sec 204 of the CrPC to refer or reject a case from entering the stage of trial. Trial is the judicial adjudication of a persons guilt or innocence. Under the CrPC, criminal trials have been categorized into four divisions having different procedures, called Session, warrant, summons and summary trials. Sec 225-237 deal with warrant cases by a court of Session. Sec 238-250 deal with warrant cases by magistrates. Sections 251-259 provides procedure for trial of summons cases by magistrates. Sections 260-265 make provisions relating to summary trials. Warrant Case: A warrant case relates to offences punishable with death, imprisonment for life or imprisonment for a term exceeding two years. The CrPC provides for two types of procedure for the trial of warrant cases triable by a magistrate, viz., those instituted upon a police report and those instituted upon complaint or on own information of magistrate. In respect of cases instituted on police report, it provides for the magistrate to discharge the accused upon consideration of the police report and documents sent with it. In respect of the cases instituted otherwise than on police report, the magistrate hears the prosecution and takes the evidence. If there is no case, the accused is discharged. If the accused is not discharged, the magistrate holds regular trial after framing the charge, etc. Sessions case: In respect of offences punishable with death, life imprisonment or imprisonment for a term exceeding seven years, the trial is conducted in a Sessions court after being committed or forwarded to the court by a magistrate. Summons case: A summons case consists of all cases relating to offences punishable with imprisonment not exceeding two years. In respect of summons cases, there is no need to frame a charge. The court gives substance of the accusation, which is called notice, to the accused when the person appears in pursuance to the summons. The court has the power to convert a summons case into a warrant case, if the magistrate thinks that it is in the interest of justice. Summary case: The high court may empower magistrates of first class to try certain offences in a summary way. Second class magistrates can summarily try an offence only if punishable only with a fine or imprisonment for a term not exceeding six months. In a summary trial, no sentence of imprisonment for a term exceeding three months can be passed in any conviction. The particulars of the summary trial are entered in the record of the court. In every case tried summarily in which the accused does not plead guilty, the magistrate records the substance of the evidence and a judgment containing a brief statement of the reasons for the finding.  [1]   Procedure of Magistrate on appearance of accused in warrant case: In warrant case if the Magistrate finds that the charge against the accused is groundless, he has power to discharge the accused by recording reasons. If the Magistrate has reason to believe that there is ground to proceed further, he then frame charges against accused which is read and explained and thereafter asks accused whether he pleads guilty of offence or not. If the accused pleads guilty, the Magistrate may convict the accused and proceed further to question the accused about quantum of sentence. Thereafter awards sentence. If the accused pleads to be tried, the magistrate proceeds to examine the witnesses of prosecution, hearing of prosecution and examination of accused under Section 313(1)(b) CrPC follows. The accused shall also be called upon to enter defence and produce his witnesses if any. Procedure of Court of Session: In case of offence exclusively triable by a court of Session, the Magistrate may take cognizance if such an offence and commit the case to the court of Session for trial. A court of Session cannot directly take cognizance of offence triable by it. On appearance by the accused before Sessions Court, the Judge hears the public prosecutor regarding the case. If the Judge considers that there is no sufficient ground to proceed with, he can discharge the accused, otherwise he proceeds to frame charge and examines the accused about the charge. If the accused pleads guilty the judge convicts the accused and the question quantum of sentence and award sentence by way of judgment. If the accused wishes to be tried the Judge shall fix dates for examination of prosecution witnesses and shall hear prosecution arguments and then call upon accused personally to explain any circumstances against him in evidence. If no case is made-out, the Judge shall record order of acquittal. If the Judge does not think it fit to acquit the accused, he shall thereupon ask the accused to enter on his defence. Accused can also file written statement explaining the circumstances of his involvement in the case. On hearing prosecution and accused, the Judge shall give a judgment. In case the accused is convicted, he shall be heard about quantum of sentence. Thereupon award of sentence follows. Examination of Court Witnesses:-The court has power to examine any person, at any stage, as court witness in the ends of Justice. Summons procedure:-In summons case, the accused is issued summons to appear or brought before the Magistrate. Then particulars of offence are stated and if the accused pleads guilty, he is convicted or otherwise trial follows. It shall not be necessary to frame charges in summons case. Summary and trial procedure:-Summary trial is a short-cut procedure of regular trial. Since risk is involved in short cut procedure, senior and experienced judicial officers are empowered to try certain petty cases. Though some offences under this summary trial procedure involved are warrant cases, but the involvement of punishment in summary trial being only three months imprisonment, summons case procedure is followed at the trial. In this summary trial, the Magistrate shall record substance if evidence and a judgment of brief statement of reasons for the finding follows if the accused does not plead guilty.  [2]   Guidelines: The purpose of these guidelines is to help magistrates decide whether or not to commit either way offences for trial in the Sessions Court. Their object us to provide guidance not direction. They are not meant to impinge upon a magistrates duty to consider each case individually and on its own particular facts. These guidelines apply to all defendants aged 18 and above. General Mode of Trial Considerations: When deciding whether a case is better triable as a Sessions case or a warrant case, a magistrate must keep in mind the following considerations: a) the nature of the case, b) whether the circumstances make the offence one of a serious character, c) whether the punishment which a magistrates court would have the power to inflict for it would be adequate, d) any other circumstances which appear to the court to make it suitable for the offence to be tried in one way rather than the other, e) any representations made by the prosecution or the defence. Some more observations: a) the court should never make its decision only on the grounds of convenience or expedition, b) the court should assume for the purposes of deciding the mode of trial that the prosecution version of the facts is correct, c) where cases involve complex questions of fact or difficult questions of law, including difficult issues of disclosure of sensitive material he court should consider committal for trial, e) in general, except where otherwise stated, either-way offences should be tried summarily. Problems and Suggested Reforms in Trial Procedure In cases of conviction, the sentence that may be passed is limited by (a) the procedure adopted for purposes of trial: and (b) the limits placed by S.29 Cr.P.C. on different classes of Magistrates. If the case is tried by the Chief Judicial Magistrate (or the Chief Metropolitan Magistrate), the upper limit of sentencing would be any sentence authorized by law, except a sentence of imprisonment for life or of imprisonment for a term exceeding seven years. A Magistrate of the First Class (or a Metropolitan Magistrate) may pass a sentence of imprisonment for a term not exceeding three years, or of fine not exceeding Rs.5000 or of both.  [3]   The procedure for recording evidence varies according to the form of trial. Section 274 Cr.P.C., prescribes that in summons cases and inquiries, the Magistrate shall, as the examination of each witness proceeds, make a memorandum of the substance of the evidence in the language of the Court. The proviso enables the Magistrate to cause such memorandum to be made in writing or from his dictation in open Court where the Magistrate is unable to make such memorandum himself and records reasons for his inability. S.376 (d)., provides that no appeal from a convicted person shall lie when a sentence of fine only is passed not exceeding Rs.200/- in a case tried summarily by the Magistrate empowered under section 260. S.260 and 355 are either unutilized or under-utilized. Only those Magistrates (Other than CJMs and MMs) who are duly empowered, either by name, or by virtue of office, or under the statute creating the offence can try the cases summarily. But most of the Magistrates are not empowered. This is one among the many reasons why summary procedures is not fully utilized. As the Judge of the same status can deal with the case summarily when he is posted as a metropolitan Judge without any empowerment there is no reason why such empowerment is needed for other magistrates to deal with the cases summarily under Section 262 of the Code The Law Commission has in its 154th report also recommended enhancement of the limit of Sentence prescribed in Section 262 of the Code to three years. It has also recommended some incidental amendments to Sections 2(x) and 2(w). The researcher feels that Section 2(x) defining warrant case be amended by substituting the word three for the word two. Consequently all cases which are not warrant cases, relating to offences punishable with imprisonment lower than three years shall become Summons cases which shall be tried by following the summary procedure prescribed in Chapter XXI of the Code. Large number of cases which do not involve serious offences can be disposed of expeditiously. As the Magistrate has power under S. 260(2) to try the case regularly if he feels that it is desirable to do so in the interest of justice no prejudice would be caused. However, the researcher is of the opinion that proper training should be given to all the Magistrates about trying the cases following the summary procedure. The training should include mock trails and writing of judgments in summary trials by the trainees.

Women In Agriculture In Palestine Sociology Essay

Women In Agriculture In Palestine Sociology Essay The project has as its principal question, What are the characteristics of women and men working in agriculture in Palestine and the impact on? different agricultural patterns and effect on roles, opportunities and gender relations? Having received financial support, the project has now embarked on its next stage and the development of a research methodology to identify this data from which policy recommendations will be made. To assist the development of this project, this literature review provides an overview of the material that is available on the subject. The approach taken has been both specific and comparative, by identifying previous material written about women in agriculture in Palestine as well as in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region and beyond more generally. A broader perspective to the question is valuable in highlighting what work has already been done, including the main features associated with women working in agriculture, the methods taken to examine the issue and the policy recommendations that have been introduced to date. Of particular note across the literature is a seeming paradox regarding women in agriculture. On one hand there is recognition of the previously ignored position of female agricultural labour. As a result there has been growing awareness both in scholarly literature and policy interventions to ensure that women are less marginalised in the sector. On the other hand the greater attention to women in agriculture, both in terms of research and policy recommendations, has largely failed to reduce their marginalisation. This raises key questions about the nature of those policies (such as gender mainstreaming and female participation in their formation, development and implementation) and how the same mistakes are not repeated in the current project. This literature review is divided as follows: General overview of women in agriculture Social dimension of women in agriculture Economic dimension of women in agriculture Technical dimension of women in agriculture Political (and policy) dimension of women in agriculture Suggestions and next steps General overview of women in agriculture globally and in MENA As noted above, there is an underlying paradox at the heart of the literature and analyses of women in agriculture and which appears to hold across the world. On the one hand there is a growing recognition of women and their role in the sector. Among scholars feminist attention to gender issues had tended to focus on urban women during the 1970s. It was not until the mid-1980s that increasing attention was placed on rural women and their involvement in agriculture (Maman and Tate 1996). Among policymakers there was an increasing awareness of the feminisation of agriculture, given the rise of visible female agricultural labour and the disappearance of men, through migration and AIDS for example (Sweetman 1999). On the other hand though, there has been a concurrent oversight, awareness and development of effective strategies to enhance the role of women in agriculture. In practical terms and across the globe, many women have struggled for autonomy in the agricultural sector, facing restriction on land ownership and use, access to inputs and credit and other resources like education and training (Sweetman 1999). Even in locations where women appear to have more access to ownership and control of the land, the denial of that right is arguably the greatest contributor to a gender gap and womens weaker social, economic and political status (Arun 1999, Badr 2010). The use of the term gender has meant that the issue of women in agriculture has become largely subsumed into a broader debate about gender and gender relations. Gender constitutes the socially constructed roles surrounding men and women. In other words, it is not the biological differences between men and women that affect their involvement in human activities, such as agriculture, but rather the way that societies around them shape them. Moreover, gender is seen as increasingly important in development terms. The World Bank (2009) bases it on four main grounds: economic (in terms of enhancing efficiency); equity and distributional; food security and household welfare; and as a basic human right. Globally gender differences are apparent in various ways including access to assets and services, such as land, labour, finance, water, rural infrastructure, technology and other inputs. In MENA, there appear to be two main texts which are especially relevant to the projects focus: Lamia El-Fattels 1996 Women in Agriculture in West Asia and North Africa, and the regional study, Women in Agriculture in the Middle East, edited by Pnina Mozafi-Haller and published nearly a decade later in 2005. To these publications may also be considered the gender-related studies conducted by the PCBS over the same period. El-Fattel provided conducted a broad survey of the subject, ranging across several decades and noting several key points. First, she observed that agriculture in different West Asia and North Africa (WANA) countries shared some common themes. This included the fact that agriculture was primarily rain-fed and more technically advanced compared to other developing countries. While there is a greater use of mechanisation and fertilizers, weeding is still done by hand. Farms tend to be run in a patriarchal fashion and are small; the latter which make it hard to absorb labour outside the family. Second, in reviewing the literature El-Fattal commented noted that there had been relatively little systematic or comparative work done to date (12-14). What material was available tended to focus on single cases, usually at the level of the village or a region within the country rather than at country or regional level. Much of this was reflected in the anthropological or general social science studies nature of the literature. Women in agriculture were generally not the focal point of such studies, but rather as aspect of more specific studies into social dynamics within a community. Third, she summarised the literature as follows: (1) women play important roles in food production in WANA and their involvement is increasing, and (2) the extent of their participation, over space and time, is a function of numerous forces at play. (16) Those factors are both diverse yet inter-related and include land holding size and tenancy (as well as landlessness), the type of farming, the degree of mechanisation, available male labour and a womans social and economic status on both farms and in the community more generally (El Fattel 1996, UN 2001: 10). One of the important aspects of Mozafi-Hallers edited volume was its country and region-based focus. It was the only notable result of a decision in the late 1990s by the Danish governments Regional Agricultural Program to improve agricultural planning and technical assistance between Egypt, Jordan, the PA and Israel. The difficulty of achieving much more with the project was undermined by the second Intifada which reduced the scope for collaboration. Meanwhile, gender had not been initially central to the project, but grew in importance throughout the course of the work (Mozafi-Haller 2005). Of particular relevance to the project is the chapter on Palestinian women in agriculture, which was written by Rema Hammami. It is arguably the most comprehensive study on the subject to date. Given the date of publication, Hammimi makes use of data from the 1990s and early 2000s. She cites a 2000 survey on time use, in which agriculture is not disaggregated from primary production). In addition to this report are two others that make passing reference to women and agriculture: a 1999 survey on female ownership and access to resources (specifically through attitudes regarding female ownership and inheritance) and more recent publications on men and women; the latest of which was published earlier this year and notes that 20.5% of women were employed in agriculture and fishing compared to 9.9% of men (PCBS 1999, 2000, 2010). Beyond these publications the PCBS does publish agricultural statistics on a yearly basis, although the questionnaire is primarily concerned with agricultural products, such as livestock, crops and materials rather than any breakdown of farm labour and women. The only agricultural report that it has produced that has a breakdown by sex is in its 2004/05 Farm Structure Survey, where the issue was raised in its questions concerning land holders (PCBS 2006). Social dimension of women in agriculture Women tend to be marginal actors in agriculture. While women suffer discrimination from a wide range of sources, much of this can be traced back to social and cultural attitudes. In the case of Palestinian and Arab women this is apparent in the public role of women, which has been broadly limited to those of mothers, sisters or wives, or childbearers and childrearers. This is reflected in part by the emphasis towards early and universal marriage and high levels of fertility throughout the region (Salman 1987: 8; Zurayk and Saadeh 1995: 37-38). Such attitudes have persisted, even as Arab women have entered the public sphere (UNDP 2006: 91). Indeed, today Arab women generally have three choices of identity: as a housewife and mother; as a housewife and mother with home-based work; or as a housewife and mother with outside employment. Why females may be subject to such attitudes have been explained in MENA in several ways. This begins early, both within the family home and at school. The use of text books, teachers attitudes and methods, early marriage and high fertility, male dominance in the public sphere and arguably the role of Islam have all been cited in this regard (Rubenburg 2001, UNDP 2006, Posusney and Doumato 2003; El-Mikawy 1999). At the same time, Islam as a constraint does not suffice; Moghadam (1993: 8) claims that it is neither monolithic nor intrinsically patriarchal; at time its adherents have sought to bring women into the public sphere, during times of conflict or national hardship when their participation on the front or in the labour force may be seen as an asset (e.g. Sudan and Saudi Arabia). El-Fattal (1996: 15) notes that Islam has proved an unsatisfying framework to account for the position of women: opposing conclusions have been reached as to whether Islam suppresses or liberates wome n. At the same time there have been changes within Islam, such as Islamic feminism has emerged and which rejects the traditional position of women and promotes their empowerment, including the right to religious education and the use of conservative dress as a means of entering the public sphere even as their attempts to reform family law have largely failed (Posusney and Doumato 2003: 9-11). In the case of Palestine these social attitudes are especially entrenched, with women noting particular political/economic limits, social pressure and familial expectations. This may contribute to some of the rights that women have failed to take up, including to education, work, inheritance, freedom of movement, choice of marriage partner and domestic abuse (Rubenberg 2001: 122-3). The effect if also felt in the generally patriarchal nature of the household and the three main family types that exist: the nuclear (father, mother and unmarried children), the extended or hamula (an economic unit based on several related males and their families headed by the eldest) and a transitional type (which combines elements of the nuclear and extended families) (Manasra 1993: 7), which reflect differences between Palestines modern and traditional sectors and urban, rural and camp settings. Economic dimension of women in agriculture This section considers the experience of women in the formal labour market generally and in the agricultural sector. It begins with a broader perspective on the nature of development in the region and the distinction between the traditional and modern economies. Female labour is largely associated with a modernised economy and the shift from the traditional to the modern economy has posed several obstacles to the inclusion of women in the labour market. The second part outlines those limitations this section provides an overview of the current figures and state of female labour in the Palestinian agricultural sector. However, this section ends with a rider, noting the uncertainty surrounding official figures on female agricultural labour and the steps taken to resolve this, both globally and in Palestine. First, according to Motzafi-Haller (2005), in much of the literature on development there is a strong binary tension between the traditional and the modern, whereby women are discriminated against in the former and included in the latter. In addition, this perception implies a non-efficient traditional economic model versus an efficient, sustainable, just and modern version (Motzafi-Haller 2005). Sweetman (1999) notes the emphasis on efficiency in most rural development interventions, with the result that it largely overlooks notions of justice and equality between the sexes. The focus on efficiency (and modernisation) has meant that the prevailing form of female labour (i.e. informal, domestic) has been undervalued, especially in relation to that done by men. At the same time pressure for women to work both inside and outside the home has risen, especially over the past few decades as structural adjustment has reduced income for the poor and weakened household structures. The result has been a diversification of labour and activities as a means of coping. As a result, agricultural labour is but one form of gaining income (Sweetman 1999). Second, within MENA both the proportion and absolute numbers of women in formal employment have tended to be low. In the literature, various explanations have been put forward, including historic, economic and structural. Historically, the emergence of exploitative labour regimes in the colonial period weakened the role and status of women, especially as the demands of the international economy and wage labour in agricultural and industrial sectors grew. The result was female exclusion from the formal labour force and their unpaid or low-paid work in the informal sector (Shukri 1996: xii). Economically, both globalisation and growth rates have been held to account for poorer female participation. Although MENA is classified as middle-income, it has been subject to slow growth, thereby limiting demand for jobs (which affects women more than men) (UNDP 2006: 91). Structurally, the limited nature of female participation may be attributed to various reasons. First, states ideology and de velopment strategies may affect womens opportunity for employment with more capital-intensive measures benefiting male workers while women have found increased opportunities through subcontracting and home-based work (Moghadam 1995: 18-19, 28). Second, women may experience employment disadvantage as a result of economic failures. This may include the U-shaped nature of economic development, whereby at the initial stage female labour participation decreases as that of men increases, followed by a growing demand for jobs in the sector that are filled by women. At the same time women suffer from externality and common access problems, whereby their labour (especially within the household) is unpaid, freely available and largely misallocated (Vecchio and Roy 1998: 10-13). In the case of the agricultural sector, Razavi (2007) highlights several specific factors that have limited female agricultural labour in MENA. Despite noting the advances in the political and legal rights of women to land, she observes that liberalisation policies (which make it harder for low-income women to access land through the market), the predominant form of small scale farming and its restrictions on achieving access to land mean that agricultural labour can only provide a complementary role in livelihoods alongside other income-generating measures. She also notes the use of customary and decentralised systems of land tenure which can be used by strong interest groups to work against womens rights. In Palestine, women face several social pressures that have economic consequences, both generally and in terms of their full participation in the agricultural sector. Women face greater social restrictions than men, including social stigma following divorce and a weaker right of inheritance (Manasra 1993) although differences do exist between women who pursue their inheritance, with brotherless daughters, widowed mothers and daughters of wealthy households those who most actively advance their claims (Moors 1996: 82). Generally though, Palestinian women (and female heads) face many of the challenges that others in the developing world experience, including restricted property rights and family law constraints on women that persist (Vardhan 1999; Vecchio Roy 1998). In the case of Palestine, access to land is mainly through inheritance and traditionally women tend to waive their rights in favour of their brothers who were expected to reciprocate by looking after their sisters (Hammam i 2005: 69). The rarity of womens ownership of land is apparent in the Palestinian Farm Structure Survey 2004/05, which distinguishes between male and female holders. Female holders vary between 3% in Gaza and the southern West Bank to 5.7% in the northern West Bank (PCBS 2006), although the survey does not provide any data that suggests to what extent female holders exercise control of their land in terms of key decisions. This is reflected in the three main types of female agricultural worker. The first type, male members of the household work off the farm while the women work part of the family land. The second type is women who are full-time farmers. In many cases they are entirely responsible for the farm following the death or abandonment of their husbands. The third type is agricultural labourers who work for others, including both Palestinians and Israelis (Hammami 2005: 61). In terms of figures available on Palestinian female agricultural labour, in 1996 29.1% of women in the labour force worked in agriculture compared to 9.9% of men (although in absolute terms men outnumbered women), highlighting that in terms of employment opportunities, agriculture is much more important for women than men and less connected with pressures from poverty than rising productivity even though the characteristics of such women tended to be older, less educated and lower paid than men in the same sector. The bulk of women in agriculture were based in the West Bank, opportunities being less in Gaza as a result of intensive and irrigated farming and the lack of cultivable land (Hammami 2005). However, by 2009 the same number of men worked in agriculture but the number of women employed in the sector had fallen to 20.5% (PCBS 2010). Third, these official figures need to be taken with a pinch of salt. At the global, regional and national level, numbers regarding womens involvement in the agriculture has been largely underreported. This reflects both womens greater participation at working on their family farms and assumptions by both men and women that their participation is not work (UN 2001: 8). The impact of this underreporting is not only a persistent theme in material related to women in agriculture, but is increasingly being addressed by practitioners. For example, in 2003 the FAO held an international workshop on the subject, recommending that the collection of such data would be best served through the national census in different countries. This meant that greater awareness was needed regarding the concepts associated with agriculture, including: holdings, holders (who makes the primary decisions), legal status of holdings (i.e. public, private and the variations of each), holders household (and the diff erentiated activities that exist within it) and economic activity as a permanent or occasional worker (FAO 2003). In Palestine efforts to get around the problem of underreporting including recognition of the informal nature of agricultural labour and the use of time use surveys as an alternative way of yielding data. This was last done in 1999 and 2000 in which agricultural labour was included under a heading of primary production. According to Hammimi (2005) though, this data was insufficiently disaggregated to provide sufficient data on the issue of agricultural work. Technical dimension of women in agriculture Technical advances in agriculture have created their own challenges. The green revolutions of the 1960s and 1970s involved the modernization of land cultivation and more intensive use of pesticides to increase production and since the 1990s the use of GMOs. The relationship of this development to gender has been notable in two ways. On one hand, it has been the well-off who have largely benefited rather than everyone (Sweetman 1999). Among those who have benefited are men, who largely control technical knowledge. However, such knowledge is imperfect which can lead to adverse results and the mismanagement of various resources in terms of land, water and female labour (Morvaridi 1992). On the other hand, the various factors that have marginalised women in agriculture, including a lack of access to resources, lower educational levels and lower rates of productivity are felt in their inability to manipulate more productive, technically advanced agricultural methods. This keeps them ghettoized in less capital intensive and more labour intensive activities (Hammami 2005: 70-71). At the same time it has placed women at greater risk to their health. While the ILO notes that agriculture is one of the most hazardous occupations in health terms, womens lack of technical knowledge is bound to work against them, through the potentially incorrect use of pesticides that can lead to poisoning (Cole 2006). Specifically in the case of Palestine, greater use of technology in agriculture has reduced the burden of work on women but rather increased it while maintaining inequalities in terms of power and income. In many respects it is men that have taken up the more mechanised and productive techniques, with female labour being largely focused at the more time-consuming, labour-intensive end (e.g. planting, transplanting, weeding, harvesting and packaging) (Hammimi 2005: 67). On the other hand, while women generally have been visible in environmental and consumer actions against the green revolutions globally, it is not evident that this is a gender issue rather than a politically-oriented one (Sweetman 1999, Pedersen and Kjà ¦rgà ¥rd 2004). Political (and policy) dimension of women in agriculture The literature review began with a tension at the heart of the topic: that there is growing attention given to women in agriculture but that measures to rectify the gender gap have not worked to date. However, this is not solely limited to the agricultural sector: across MENA there have been general advances in the political and legal rights for women. At the same time, social and economic pressures have worked against womens rights and been institutionalised through the creation of instruments such as personal status laws and officially sanctioned gender discrimination (Badr 2010). In Palestine, a range of political pressures have worked against women in agriculture. First and uniquely there are challenges presented by the occupation, which challenge men as much as women. These include land confiscations, movement restrictions, a lack of an external market and the administrative division and control of the land, all of which was exacerbated even further by the second Intifada, resulting in sieges, invasions, curfews and internal closures. For women, the responses to these processes have involved the search for coping strategies to help support the household (Hammami 2005: 49, 53). Second, compared to women in other MENA countries, those in Palestine appear to be in a more advantageous position relatively. Women are well represented in the education system and in the public sphere, especially through womens organisations and lobby groups. However, at the same time, female involvement in formal institutions is low. This includes both the formal (as opposed to informal) labour force and representation in formal political institutions, such as the legislature and agricultural unions (Hammami 2005: 54-55). The problems faced by Palestinian women (and women more generally) is reflected in the largely failed policy interventions that have resulted in the agricultural sector, which owe much to practitioners world view and failure to implement gender-related solutions effectively. First, Motzafi-Haller (2005: 8-9) draws attention to the concept of paternal feminism and the work of Boutheina Cheriet, an Algerian professor of comparative education. Rather than reducing gender discrimination by including women and modernising the economy, this more critical view maintains women in a submissive position. In the absence of any wider public debate concerning female roles in development, women are either imposed from above or from outside rather than treated as full equals and partners. Second, efforts that aim at gender-mainstreaming have tended to fail, largely because of what Sweetman (1999: 7) notes as a result of mechanistically integrated gender issues in planning and implementation, without [a] commitment to challenging injustice. Moreover, this means not only being gender aware, but also being prepared to tackle all forms of discrimination, from the overt and direct to the less clear and indirect (ILO 2006: 78). In part the absence of accurate data (see above) can mean that development interventions based on them will be undermined (Sweetman 1999). Much of this may be picked up through the use of statistics, surveys, cost-benefit analyses, research and gender-impact analyses (i.e. examine specific activities and their impact on men and women) (UN 2001: 4). This last point emphasises the importance of incorporating men into gender analysis, since the opportunities and constraints facing men and women will be different. El-Fattel (1996: 47) suggests asking spe cific questions of men and women, such as (1) who does what, when and where? (2) who has access to or control over resources? and (3) who benefits from each enterprise? Grace (2004) argues that understanding the roles of men and women means going beyond their sex, to consider other factors such as age, wealth, marital status and stage of their life cycle. Regionally, across MENA the UN has noted different policy measures (2001: 10, 36). In Syria the focus has been on enhancing rural womens status through rural development programmes and reforms in the educational, legal, social, health and economic sectors. In Lebanon attention has been given to income generation and vocational training for rural women and forms of protection in the informal sector. In Jordan the primary aim has been to increase female participation in the labour market. However, in the absence of strong government will to enforce these measures, the position of rural women will remain weak. Globally, awareness of these failures is reflected in the World Banks Gender in Agriculture Sourcebook (2009: 3-4), which provides tools and case studies of practical examples and best practices to incorporate gender into planning processes. The aim of this literature is to support all kinds of practitioners, from those who are aware of gender issues but do not know where to start through to others that require more training and assistance in devising such mechanisms. Specifically, it uses the Sustainable Livelihoods Approach developed by the British Department for International Development as its conceptual framework for gender-related development. Specifically this has involved drawing attention to assets, markets (for products, labour, finances, land and water), risk and vulnerability, and knowledge, information and organisation related to these issues. For Palestine, a good starting point would be that outlined by Hammami (2005: 74), who notes a current lack of sufficiently gender-specific information. She argues that good intentions and development programs alone will not guarantee an improvement in womens situation in agriculture and hence increase in farm productivity. Among the measures that would need to be addressed include: enhanced opportunities in rural areas (more resources and infrastructure), development programs to strengthen rural peoples role and their participation, more gender-related data in agriculture, adaptive and appropriate research and technologies for women, qualified and professional female extension agents, womens access to land, access to credit and other agricultural inputs, better education (to understand technical information) and more incentives to encourage greater risk and productivity (an aim that is undermined by womens general lack of ownership on the land). That Hammimi highlights these recommendations suggests the relatively unsuccessful efforts to integrate gender awareness to date, despite the formation of a Womens Division within the Palestinian Authoritys Ministry of Agriculture in 2000. Before that date, agricultural support services were largely gender-blind and overlooked the role of women as agricultural workers in their own right. Growing awareness that this needed to be addressed took place with the formation of a Womens Extension Division inside the Directorate of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development in 1998 and a general Womens Division in 2000, even as concern persisted that a specific womens unit might ghettoize gender issues as it appears to have done until now. Suggestions and next steps The review of the literature on women in agriculture generally and in Palestine specifically highlights some common themes. Politically, economically and socially, Palestinian female agricultural workers share similar experiences to those of women working in agriculture in other parts of the word. This includes their relative marginalization and lack of access to resources and inputs, such as training, credit, water, land and others. At the same time though, in contrast to previous decades, the issue of gender has become an increasingly important one in studies on agriculture; even if the status and role of women has been overlooked, there had been plenty of attention given to highlighting the situation along with recommendations to implement greater gender awareness and mainstreaming in policy terms. This is apparent in global efforts to incorporate women into the research and policy design process through participation in development planning. That the situation of women is paradoxical overlooked in practical terms yet increasingly considered in scholarly work and policy recommendations suggests a new path forward is necessary. The coordinators of the current project do not presumably want to produce another analysis and report that will result in additional data and policy recommendations that will fail to combat the discrimination that women in agriculture continue to face. Consequently, as a starting point, in the case of Palestine, this might involve the following: Develop more robust data on the state of women in agriculture This would require both quantitative and qualitative forms of data. In addition to revision of the measures to be addressed in the national census, smaller-scale surveys could be done to include disaggregated data that took account of gender and temporary/permanent labour. In addition qualitative data would include descriptive insights by men and women in the agricultural sector, through i